Reasons for success

I finished my last post with the last paragraph of the Wikipedia on the issue China economic reforms. Reasons for success might be considered many, but I would like to consider the most important reason of all; the right disposition of the Chinese government to achieve it, and this is to put on top of all priorities economic development. It might sound quite logical, but reality is that it is not such an easy task because political issues usually become priorities and disturb and break such an approach to the matter.

In this regard we have to turn our eyes to Chinese politics under Deng Xiaoping. Unless Mao Zedong´s time when China got involved in at least six wars and terrible disturbances inside, Deng Xiaoping policy was expressed, also in Western terms, as a policy of stability –if not directly called of peace.

Stability has been the key word all along the three generations of leaders since Deng Xiaoping in order to let the economy flourish. Even if they have kept a political issue under the consideration of indisputable; China sovereignty on Taiwan, they have played it in a pragmatic manner and, as they did with Hong Kong, the game goes about an always growing economic involvement and entanglement.

China domestic political doctrine has been firmly exposed as such; stability and stability to allow economic development. People’s rights and democracy have not been allowed to put into question, as they are not considered a priority, in order not to disturb economic development and, especially after the Tiananmen revolts, people in China has accepted the Chinese Communist government deal. Even some measures taken by the leadership, especially by the current one, against a too fast path of devolopment have to be read in attention to the country stability.

Especially interesting has been how China has put this policy into practice in the international arena. In contrast with the XX century when Western power allied to submit China, this time China has been able to play with the interests of them separately and when the US has tried to play hard with China, it has quickly understood that his economic involvement with China, as also his allies’ involvement with the communist country would bring any pressure on China to a failure and would result in economic losses, something the American system is not prepared to assume easily.

But the reality is that China has practiced a real pacifist policy and most of China researchers as Enrique Fanjul, myself or others in Spain and I guess in other countries, people who has really had a vital relationship with China, has noticed and transmitted this commitment of China with international peace.

The West has foreseen long ago the China rise and has tried to avoid it, therefore some other more neutral sources, many not personally involved with China, have tried to design a policy able to contain it. But China has been able to defuse any of those attempts putting in place pragmatism and that pacifist or pacific approach.  

Finally, the last reason for success pointed out by the Wikipedia, I did not copy in my previous post is:

“Herman Kahn explained the Reasons for success rise of Asian economic power saying the Confucian ethic was playing a "similar but more spectacular role in the modernization of East Asia than the Protestant ethic played in Europe".

Under my understanding he does not hit the point, but get quite close to it. But we will see it when we go back to this point from the Chinese point of view, as we go now to a new part in the blog titled Chinese Thinking.

Chinese economic reform 改革开放 - Deng´s followers

Despite Deng's death in 1997, reforms continued under his handpicked successors, Jiang Zemin and Zhu Rongji. In 1997 and 1998, large-scale privatization occurred, in which all state enterprises, except a few large monopolies, were liquidated and their assets sold to private investors. Between 2001 and 2004, the number of state-owned enterprises decreased by 48 percent. During the same period, Jiang and Zhu also reduced tariffs, trade barriers and regulations, reformed the banking system, dismantled much of the Mao-era social welfare system, forced the PLA to divest itself of military-run businesses, reduced inflation, and joined the World Trade Organization. These moves invoked discontent among some groups, especially laid off workers of state enterprises that had been privatized.

The domestic private sector first exceeded 50% of GDP in 2005 and has further expanded since. However, some state monopolies still remained, such as in petroleum and banking.

The Hu-Wen Administration has slowed the progress of the reforms. The government has adopted more egalitarian and populist policies; It increased subsidies and control over the health care sector^, halted privatization and adopted a loose monetary policy, which lead to the formation of a property bubble in which property prices tripled. The privileged state sector was the primary recipient of government investment, which under the new administration, promoted the rise of large "national champions" which could compete with large foreign corporations.

China´s economic performance since reform

China's economic growth since the reform has been very rapid, exceeding the East Asian Tigers. Economists estimate China's GDP growth from 1978 to 2005 at 9.5% a year. Since the beginning of Deng Xiaoping's reforms, China's GDP has risen tenfold. The increase in total factor productivity (TFP) was the most important factor, with productivity accounting for 40.1% of the GDP increase, compared with a decline of 13.2% for the period 1957 to 1978—the height of Maoist policies. Per capita incomes grew at 6.6% a year. Average wages rose sixfold between 1978 and 2005 while absolute poverty declined from 41% of the population to 5% from 1978 to 2001.Some scholars believed that China's economic growth has been understated, due to large sectors of the economy not being counted.

Reason for success

Scholars have proposed a number of theories to explain the success of China's economic reforms in its move from a planned economy to a socialist market economy despite unfavorable factors such as the troublesome legacies of socialism, considerable erosion of the work ethic, decades of anti-market propaganda, and the "lost generation" whose education disintegrated amid the disruption of the Cultural Revolution. One notable theory is that decentralization of state authority allowed local leaders to experiment with various ways to privatize the state sector and energize the economy. Although Deng was not the originator of many of the reforms, he gave approval to them. Another theory focuses on internal incentives within the Chinese government, in which officials presiding over areas of high economic growth were more likely to be promoted. Scholars have noted that local and provincial governments in China were "...hungry for investment" and competed to reduce regulations and barriers to investment to boost economic growth and the officials' own careers. A third explanation believes that the success of the reformists are attributable to Deng's cultivation of his own followers in the government.

Chinese economic reform 改革开放 - Deng´s reforms

The Chinese economic reform (改革开放; literally Reform and Opening) refers to the program of economic reforms called "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" in the People's Republic of China (PRC) that were started in December 1978 by reformists within the Communist Party of China (CPC) led by Deng Xiaoping.

First stage

The first stage, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, involved the decollectivization of agriculture; the Household-responsibility system, which divided the land of the People's communes into private plots. Farmers were able to keep the land's output after paying a share to the state. This move increased agricultural production, increased the living standards of hundreds of millions of farmers and stimulated rural industry.

Reforms were also implemented in urban industry to increase productivity. A dual price system was introduced, in which state-owned industries were allowed to sell any production above the plan quota, and commodities were sold at both plan and market prices, allowing citizens to avoid the shortages of the Maoist era. Private businesses were allowed to operate for the first time since the Communist takeover, and they gradually began to make up a greater percentage of industrial output. Price flexibility was also increased, expanding the service sector.

The opening up of the country to foreign investment. The country was opened to foreign investment. Deng created a series of special economic zones for foreign investment that were relatively free of the bureaucratic regulations and interventions that hampered economic growth. These regions became engines of growth for the national economy.

Second stage

Permission for entrepreneurs to start up businesses Controls on private businesses and government intervention continued to decrease, and there was small-scale privatization of state enterprises which had become unviable. A notable development was the decentralization of state control, leaving local provincial leaders to experiment with ways to increase economic growth and privatize the state sector. Township and village enterprises, firms nominally owned by local governments but effectively private, began to gain market share at the expense of the state sector.

Corruption and increased inflation increased discontent, contributing to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and a conservative backlash after that event which ousted several key reformers and threatened to reverse many of Deng's reforms. However, Deng stood by his reforms and in 1992, he affirmed the need to continue reforms in his southern tour. He also reopened the Shanghai Stock Exchange closed by Mao 40 years earlier.

Although the economy grew quickly during this period, economic troubles in the inefficient state sector increased. Heavy losses had to be made up by state revenues and acted as a drain upon the economy.Inflation became problematic in 1985, 1988 and 1992 Privatizations began to accelerate after 1992, and the private sector surpassed the state sector in share of GDP for the first time in the mid-1990s. China's government slowly expanded recognition of the private economy, first as a "complement" to the state sector (1988) and then as an "important component" (1999) of the socialist market economy

The foundation of the People´s Republic of China, Mao´s era

                                         The People´s Republic of China was proclaimed in 1949

The new leaders gained popular support by curbing inflation, restoring the economy, and rebuilding many war-damaged industrial installations, set up various institutions to lead changes in rural areas, the military, and the bureaucracy, included legal protection of wome´s rights and the abolition of polygamy. Also adopted the horizontal left–right method of writing. Lands were confiscated by the government from the former landlords and subsequently redistributed to the lower-class peasants en launched.the Three-anti and Five Movements, as well as the beginning of the Anti-Rightist Movement, when property owners and businesspeople were labeled as "rightists" and purged resulting in the killing of about one million  However, people.experienced significant growth between 1949 to 1958.

The newly founded PRCh fought against the UN, leaded by the US, in the Korean Peninsula between 1949 and 1952 and entered Tibet in Oct 1950. In 1964 builded its first atomic bomb.

The Sino-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Friendship was signed in 1950 and the Soviet Union provided considerable economic aid and training to China during the 1950s.

In 1957 Mao launched the Hundred Flower Campaign intended to let a hundred school of thought to contend aimed at fighting bureaucracy, but many took it as an opportunity to critize the Communist Party, then Mao put in place the Anti Rightist Campaign purging many intellectuals and workers.

In 1958 Mao broke with the Soviet model and launched the Great Leap Forward aimed a rapidly raising industrial and agricultural production. The results were disastrous, famine caused between 20 and 40 million deaths. The loudest opponent of Mao, Defense Minister Peng Dehaua, leader of the People´s Liberation Army in the Korean war, was purged.

The disaster of the Great Leap Forward decreased Mao influence as national leader and President Liu Shaoqi, Party General Secretary Deng Xiaoping and Premier Zhou Enlai took over the direction of the party and adopted pragmatic economic policies. But Mao reacted launching the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution to regain power against the "liberal bourgeoisie" and "capitalist roaders", created the Red Guards whose first targets were Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi, then they went on to rampage putting China in state of anarchy which actually lasted from 1966 to 1976.

Meanwhile, in 1971 Secretary of State of US, Kissinger led a secret delegation to Beijing to restore their relations. Previously China and SU relations had deteriarated at to the point of armed conflict at their Manchurian border.Nixon visited Beijing in 1972 causing confusion among socialist countries, "social imperialism" was now China´s main enemy.

Mao health was in sharp decline by 1973, however the Gang of Four leaded by his wife Jiang Qing tried to keep Mao´s radical stance. A turning point in the struggle between radical maoist and the pragmatic line leaded by Deng Xiaoping was Zhou Enlai death and his popular morning in Tiananmen converted in a demostration against the Gang.

Despite of Hua Guofeng was elected by Mao as his successor, Deng Xiaoping assumed the facto the leadership when Mao died in 1976.  

The Republic of China

The Republic of China begins in 1912 after in putting an end to over two thousand years of Imperial rule.

Since the republic's founding, it experienced many tribulations as it was dominated by numerous warlords and fragmented by foreign powers.

In 1928, the republic was nominally unified under the Kuomintang (KMT, the Chinese Nationalist Party) after the Northern Expedition, and was in the early stages of industrialization and modernization when it was caught in the conflicts between the Kuomintang government, the Communist Party of China which was converted into a nationalist party, remnant warlords, and Japan. Most nation-building efforts were stopped during the full-scale War of Resistance against Japan from 1937 to 1945, and later the widening gap between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party made a coalition government impossible, causing the resumption of the Chinese Civil War.

A series of political, economic, and military missteps led the Kuomintang to defeat and retreat to Taiwan in 1949, establishing an authoritarian one-party state that considered itself to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of China. However, since political liberalization began in the late 1970s, the Republic of China has transformed itself into a multiparty, representative democracy on Taiwan.

Chinese Dynasties: Qing Dynasty 清朝 (1644 to 1912)

The Qing Dynasty 清朝 (1644 to 1912) was founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro in what is today northeast China (also known as Manchuria). It expanded into China proper and its surrounding territories until a complete pacification of China was accomplished around 1683 under the Kangxi Emperor.

In its early years, the Qing Dynasty witnessed a flourishing that was unprecedented by any other age. In order to mitigate class conflicts, the Qing pursued a policy of rewarding land cultivation coupled with a reduction or exemption from taxation. These policies promoted economic growth in the hinterland and on the frontiers of the country. During the reigns of Emperors Kangxi (1622-1723), Yongzheng (1723-1736) and Qianlong (1736-1796) saw the Qing at its heyday. By the mid-18th century economic development reached a new height. With this new prosperity power became more centralized, national strength increased, a well-maintained social order and a population that amounted to some 300 million by the end of the century. During the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Taiwan became part of the country and the Sino-Russian Treaty of Nerchinsk was signed determining the border between the two countries. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, Xinjiang was incorporated into China after the Junggars and Uigurs were defeated. The early Qing emperors not only resolved the long conflict between nomads and peasants that had plagued China throughout history, but also took a series of measures to develop the economy, culture and transportation in the frontier areas. As a result, they consolidated national unification and laid the foundation for modern China's territorial boundaries.

In the realm of literature, during the reigns of Emperors Kangxi and Qianlong, several large works such as the Encyclopedia of Chinese Writings (Confucian classics, history, philosophy and belles-lettres), Kangxi Dictionary, and A Collection of Books Ancient and Modern, were compiled; which with other works made an important contribution to Chinese history and culture. Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦 - Hóng Lóu Mèng), composed by Cao Xueqin, is one of China's Four Great Classical Novels, a masterpiece of Chinese vernacular literature and is generally acknowledged to be the pinnacle of classical Chinese novels.

In spite of noticeable achievements, the Qing rulers were autocratic and despotic. The national economy was still based on agriculture. In the culture and practiced ideology, feudal ethics and rites continued to dominate society. Worse still, the Qing rulers persecuted many intellectuals, banning and destroying works that did not meet with their approval. The foreign policy of the Qing Empire was one of isolationism. The government was conservative and arrogant. It failed to join the industrial revolution that was spreading across the countries in the West. Sadly, these factors led to China falling more and more behind the developing world and the gap between it and Western nations inevitably widened.

After the mid-Qing period, the dynasty failed to adjust as new problems arose. Rampant corruption, a steady decentralization of power, warfare, rebellions, overpopulation and economic disasters plagued the once glorious empire. Rebellions sprouted like mushrooms after a rain, one of which, the uprising by the White Lotus Sect, that lasted for nine years, put an end to the golden age of the Qing. In 1840, the 20th year of the Daoguang reign, the Opium War, an armed invasion of China by foreign capitalists, broke out. The Qing government was forced to sign a series of unreasonable treaties, which demanded China to cede territories, pay indemnities and/or open trading ports. Eventually China became a semi-feudal and semi-colonized country.

At that time, the attitude of the Western powers towards China was strangely ambivalent. On the one hand, they did their best to undermine what they considered to be restrictive trading and governmental regulations. On the other hand, they did do their best to prop up the ailing Qing, the most notable example being the crushing of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 by foreign troops. What the Western powers were interested in was the carving up of China for their own purposes, and that, paradoxically, required keeping China together.

Through its corrupt politics and conservatism, the Qing Dynasty rapidly declined. As its legitimacy waned almost daily, the Qing government imposed more taxes in order to pay both the expenses of war and the indemnities they had to bear. This action placed an unbearable burden on the people, especially the peasants. External aggression and domestic oppression sparked off a series of anti-feudal and anti-imperialist movements such as the Taiping Rebellion and the Nian Army Uprising. Under these circumstances, the Qing government was forced to introduce reforms, such as the Self-strengthening Movement and the Hundred-Day Reform, in effort to save and revitalize China. All measures that were doomed to fail. In the end the Revolution of 1911, led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, enabled the Chinese people to overthrow the Qing imperialists who had ruled China for 268 years.

The Qing Dynasty which from 1644 had lasted 268, with a total of ten emperors when collapsed. With its demise feudalism, which had lasted for more than two thousand years, was brought to a close. The nation had entered a new era - Republic of China (1911 - 1949).

Chinese Dynasties: Ming dynasty - 明朝 (1368 - 1644)

The Ming Dynasty was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic Hans.

Ming rule saw the construction of a vast navy and a standing army of one million troops. Although private maritime trade and official tribute missions from China had taken place in previous dynasties, the tributary fleet under the Muslim eunuch admiral Zheng He in the 15th century far surpassed all others in size. There were enormous construction projects, including the restoration of the Grand Canal and the Great Wall and the establishment of the Forbidden City in Beijing during the first quarter of the 15th century. Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200 million.

The rebuilding of China's agricultural base and strengthening of communication routes through the militarized courier system had the unintended effect of creating a vast agricultural surplus that could be sold at burgeoning markets located along courier routes. Rural culture and commerce became influenced by urban trends. The upper echelons of society embodied in the scholarly gentry class were also affected by this new consumption-based culture. In a departure from tradition, merchant families began to produce examination candidates to become scholar-officials and adopted cultural traits and practices typical of the gentry. Parallel to this trend involving social class and commercial consumption were changes in social and political philosophy, bureaucracy and governmental institutions, and even arts and literature.

By the 16th century the Ming economy was stimulated by trade with the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch. China became involved in a new global trade of goods, plants, animals, and food crops known as the Columbian Exchange. Trade with European powers and the Japanese brought in massive amounts of silver, which then replaced copper and paper banknotes as the common medium of exchange in China.

During the last decades of the Ming the flow of silver into China was greatly diminished, thereby undermining state revenues and indeed the entire Ming economy. This damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient Little Ice Age, natural calamities, crop failure, and sudden epidemics. The ensuing breakdown of authority and people's livelihoods allowed rebel leaders such as Li Zicheng to challenge Ming authority. Seizing the opportunity, the Manchus crossed the Great Wall after the Ming border general Wu Sangui opened them the gates at Shanhai Pass.

Culture

As in earlier dynasties, the Ming Dynasty saw a flourishing in the arts, whether it was painting, poetry, music, literature, or dramatic theater. Carved designs in lacquerwares and designs glazed onto porcelain wares displayed intricate scenes similar in complexity to those in painting. The major production centers for porcelain items in the Ming Dynasty were Jingdezhen in Jiangxi province and Dehua in Fujian province.

There was a great amount of literary achievement in the Ming Dynasty. The Jin Ping Mei, published in 1610, is considered by some to be the fifth great novel of pre-modern China, in reference to the Four Great Classical Novels. Two of these novels, the Water Margin and Journey to the West were products of the Ming Dynasty. To complement the work of novels, the theater scripts of playwrights were equally imaginative. One of the most famous plays in Chinese history, The Peony Pavilion, was written by the Ming playwright Tang Xianzu.

The dominant religious beliefs during the Ming dynasty were the traditional mixtures of ancestor worship, Daoism and Buddhism. The Chinese believed in a host of deities in what may be termed Chinese folk religion. The late Ming period saw the first arrival of Jesuit missionaries from Europe such as Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault. There were also other denominations including the Dominicans and Franciscans.

Wang Yangming's Confucianism.

Leading a new strand of Confucian teaching and philosophy was the scholar-official Wang Yangming (1472–1529), whose critics said that his teachings were contaminated by Chan Buddhism. Wang Yangming (1472–1529).
In analyzing Zhu Xi's(1130–1200, under the Song dynasty, founder of Neo-Confucianism) concept of "the extension of knowledge" (i.e. gaining understanding through careful and rational investigation of things and events; Chinese: 理學, or 格物致知), Wang realized that universal principles were concepts espoused in the minds of all. Breaking from the mold, Wang said that anyone, no matter what socioeconomic status or background, could become as wise as the ancient sages Confucius and Mencius, and that the writings of the latter two were not the source of truth, but merely guides that could have flaws if carefully examined. In Wang's mind, a peasant who had many experiences and drew natural truths from these was more wise than an official who had carefully studied the Classics but had not experienced the real world in order to observe what was true.

To curb his political influence he was often sent out to deal with military affairs and rebellions far away from the capital. Yet his ideas penetrated mainstream Chinese thought, and spurred new interest in Daoism and Buddhism. Furthermore, people began to question the validity of the social hierarchy and the idea that the scholar was above the farmer. Wang Yangming's disciple and salt-mine worker Wang Gen gave lectures to commoners about pursuing education to improve their lives, while his follower He Xinyin 何心隱 challenged the elevation and emphasis of the family in Chinese society. His contemporary Li Zhi 李贄 (1527–1602) even taught that women were the intellectual equals of men and should be given a better education; both Li and He eventually died in prison, jailed on charges of spreading "dangerous ideas".

Chinese dynasties: Yuan Dynasty 元朝 (1271-1368)

The Yuan Dynasty 元朝 (1271-1368) was founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an imperial dynasty of China. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu (Chinese: 太祖)

Genghis Khan defeated in 1227 the Western Xia and in 1234 he defeated the Jin. This was to open the way to unify the whole of China for the first time under a non-Chinese regime, a people who eventually were to become a ethnic group.

Following Genghis' death, his grandson succeeded him and as Kublai Khan, who was known as Emperor Shizu, continued to annex Chinese territory and in 1279 the Yuan forces captured Hangzhou, the capital city of the Southern Song.

With their dynasty now firmly established in the Chinese empire, the Yuan found themselves rulers of a complex group of peoples who inhabited the largest land based empire ever to exist, stretching from what is now Korea and western Russia in the north and from Burma to Iraq in the south. But they were rulers with no experience of administration. Consequently, they adopted Chinese political and cultural models.

Ruling from their capital city Dadu, nowadays Beijing, the Mongol Khans created four classes of people to rule upon; first the Mongols themselves, next came their allies and non-Chinese people from Inner- Asia, a class to be called the Semu. The third class was made up of the people of Northern China and they were called the Han. Lastly, came the people of Southern China, who were referred to as the Nan. The Mongols in the first group enjoyed the greatest privileges under the regime, while the fourth group, the Nan were to have the least. The same applied in so far as taxation and the penal code were concerned as this had a very divisive effect on the population as a whole. Mixed marriages were forbidden and it was impossible to gain promotion from one group to another.

Yuan dynasty created the administrative regions of China, maintained by next dynasties and creating the basis for the actual Chinese provinces.

The Yuan regime can be roughly divided into three periods: the early, middle and late periods. The early period began from the reign of Kublai Khan, Yuan Emperor Shizu, until 1294. During this period rulers adopted laws from the Han nationality and set up political, economic and cultural systems that promoted social development.

The middle years (1307 to 1323) marked a period of decline. During this period, social conflicts and the competition for imperial power became intensified and included continuous uprisings all around the country.

From 1329 in the late-Yuan period, peasant uprisings accelerated the decline of the regime. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Yuan dynasty had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power and retreat to the north. In 1368 the forces Zhu Yuanzhang entered Beijing and rebuild the dynasty of the Han nationality, namely the Ming Dynasty.

The last Yuan Emperor together with his court fled from the country while many of the Mongols were content to remain and become integrated with the Chinese population. The Yuan Dynasty lasted ninety-eight years with eleven emperors. The Manchu emperors of the Qing Dynasty (1644 -1911) accepted the final submission of the Mongol rulers and thus Mongolia became a part of China.

Kublai Khan promoted science and religion. He issued paper banknotes in 1273. A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan Dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the written vernacular. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the Mongol World Empire also permanently influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan Dynasty and its ally and subordinate in Persia, the Ilkhanate, encouraged this development. Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-rite Tantric Buddhism had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of the Yuan Dynasty introduced Middle Eastern cartography, astronomy, medicine, clothing, and diet in East Asia. Middle Eastern crops such as carrots, turnips, new varieties of lemons, eggplants, and melons, high-quality granulated sugar, and cotton were all either introduced or successfully popularized by the Yuan Mongols.

Chinese Dynasties: The Song Dynasty - 宋朝 (960 – 1279)

The Song Dynasty succeeded the Tang and a period full of unrest and wars known as the Five Dynasties 五代 (907-960). The Song Dynasty is divided into two distinct periods: the Northern Song and Southern Song. During the Northern Song (Chinese: 北宋, 960–1127), the Song capital was in the northern city of Bianjing (now Kaifeng) and the dynasty controlled most of inner China. The Southern Song (Chinese: 南宋, 1127–1279) refers to the period after the Song lost control of northern China to the Jin Dynasty. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze River and established their capital at Lin'an (now Hangzhou). Although the Song Dynasty had lost control of the traditional birthplace of Chinese civilization along the Yellow River, the Song economy was not in ruins, as the Southern Song Empire contained 60 percent of China's population and a majority of the most productive agricultural land.[1] The Southern Song Dynasty considerably bolstered its naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad.

To repel the Jin, and later the Mongols, the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder. In 1234, the Jin Dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song.

The population of China doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries. This growth came through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, the use of early-ripening rice from southeast and southern Asia, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Northern Song census recorded a population of roughly 50 million, much like the Han and Tang dynasties. This data is found in the Standard Histories, however, it is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of some 100 million people, and 200 million by the time of the Ming Dynasty. This dramatic increase of population fomented an economic revolution in premodern China. The expansion of the population was partially the cause for the gradual withdrawal of the central government from heavily regulating the market economy. A much larger populace also increased the importance of the lower gentry's role in grassroots administration and local affairs. Appointed officials in county and provincial centers relied upon the scholarly gentry for their services, sponsorship, and local supervision.

The Song was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as first discernment of true north using a compass.

Social life during the Song was vibrant; social elites gathered to view and trade precious artworks, the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the earlier invention of woodblock printing and the 11th-century invention of movable type printing. Pre-modern technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, engineering, and other intellectual pursuits flourished over the course of the Song. Philosophers such as Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused with Buddhist ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought out the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism. Although the institution of the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui Dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song period. This became a leading factor in the shift of an aristocratic elite to a bureaucratic elite.

The traditional state of civil administration fully developed and brought up a revival of Confucian thought - the so-called "Neo-Confucianism", with many scholars commenting the traditional books, but also developing a more metaphysical worldview of the rather state-oriented "old" Confucianism.

The Song time is often called a "Chinese Renaissance" because - similar to the European renaissance - progress in technology and inventions, the upcoming of new philosophical interpretations of the old texts meant a renewal of the old and the creation of new streamings. The Song period is marked by a revival of old Confucian traditions after the Tang age of Buddhism, and the prevailing position of civil scholars over the military age of Tang and Five Dynasties. But Song culture was also a culmination of the heritage of two thousand years of culture, and from this point of crystallization on, Chinese thinking became orthodox, culture became sterile as if it had been unchanged since thousands of years.

Chinsese Dynasties: Tang - 唐 (618 - 907)

The Tang Dynasty was founded by the Li (李) family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire. The dynasty was interrupted briefly by the Second Zhou Dynasty (690– 705) when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne, becoming the first and only Chinese empress regnant, ruling in her own right.

With its capital at Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the most populous city in the world at the time with 2 m. people, Tang Dynasty is generally regarded as a high point in Chinese civilization. In two censuses of the 7th and 8th centuries, the Tang records estimated the population by number of registered households at about 50 million people and in the 9th century, it is estimated that the population had grown by then to about 80 million people.

With its large population base, the dynasty was able to raise professional and conscripted armies of hundreds of thousands of troops to contend with nomadic powers in dominating Inner Asia and the lucrative trade routes along the Silk Road. Various kingdoms and states paid tribute to the Tang court, while the Tang also conquered or subdued several regions which it indirectly controlled through a protectorate system. Besides political hegemony, the Tang also exerted a powerful cultural influence over neighboring states such as those in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

The Tang Dynasty was largely a period of progress and stability, except during the An Shi Rebellion and the decline of central authority in the latter half of the dynasty. Like the previous Sui Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty maintained a civil service system by drafting officials through standardized examinations and recommendations to office. This civil order was undermined by the rise of regional military governors known as jiedushi during the 9th century. The weakened central government largely withdrew from managing the economy, though the country's mercantile affairs stayed intact and commercial trade continued to thrive regardless.

Chinese culture flourished and further matured during the Tang era; it is considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry. Two of China's most famous poets, Li Bai and Du Fu, belonged to this age, as did many famous painters such as Han Gan, Zhang Xuan, and Zhou Fang. There was a rich variety of historical literature compiled by scholars, as well as encyclopedias and geographical works.

There were many notable innovations during the Tang, including the development of woodblock printing.

Buddhism became a major influence in Chinese culture, with native Chinese sects gaining prominence. However, Buddhism would later be persecuted by the state and decline in influence. Although the dynasty and central government were in decline by the 9th century, art and culture continued to flourish.

Chinese Dynasties: Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui (265 - 618)

Jin Dynasty -晋朝 (265 and 420), divided in Western Jin (265–316) and Eastern Jin (317–420). Western Jin was founded by Sima Yan, with its capital at Luoyang, while Eastern Jin was begun by Sima Rui, with its capital at Jiankang, modern Nanjing. The shift of the capital reflects a process that destroyed the whole political, social and economic system of north China. Inner wars and the uprising of Non-Chinese chieftains contributed to the downfall of the Sima family. Together with the imperial clan, a great part of the northern aristocracy fled to the south where they had to arrange their rule with the powerful local magnates of the lower Yangtse area. The Eastern Jin was the first of a couple of dynasties (Southern Dynasties 南朝) that developed a culture different from that of northern China. As an economical center of whole China, the south should be of great importance for the whole of China until today.

Southern and Northern Dynasties - 南北朝 (420-589)Though an age of civil war and political chaos, it was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spreading of Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism. The period saw the first recorded large-scale migration of Han Chinese people to the lands south of the Yangtze River.

The Sui Dynasty (581-618) was founded by Emperor Wen of Sui, the Sui Dynasty capital was at Luoyang. His reign saw the reunification of Southern and Northern China and the construction of the Grand Canal. Emperors Wen and Yang undertook various reforms to reduce the rich-poor social gap that resulted in enhanced agricultural productivity, centralization of government power. The Three Departments and Six Ministries system was officially instituted, coinage was standardized and re-unified, defense was improved and the Great Wall expanded. Buddhism was also spread and encouraged throughout the empire, uniting the varied people and cultures of China.

This dynasty has often been compared to the earlier Qin Dynasty in tenor and in the ruthlessness of its accomplishments. The Sui dynasty's early demise was attributed to the government's tyrannical demands on the people, who bore the crushing burden of taxes and compulsory labor. These resources were overstrained by the completion of the Grand Canal—and other construction projects, including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Weakened by costly and disastrous military campaigns against Goguryeo in the Korean Peninsula, which ended with the defeat of Sui in the early seventh century, the dynasty disintegrated through a combination of popular revolts, disloyalty, and assassination. Sui, however, had set up the conditions for the following great Tang dynasty.

Chinese Dynasties: Three Kingdoms period - 三国时代;

From now on, we are going to see in next post Chinese history and culture, to go back to Chinese Thought as derivate from its school of thought and from its historical experience.

The Han dynasty is followed by the Three Kingdoms, even if this period might not be so relevant nor lasting in history it is a well known part of Chinese history due to the famous Roman of The Three Kingdoms novel, written during the Ming dynasty by Luo Guangzhong, one of the four Chinese literature classics along with Journey to the West, The Outlaw of Marsh and A Dream of the Red Mansions. The Three Kingdoms is the one focused in war.

The Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 attracted many followers and soon numbered several hundred thousands receiving support from many parts of China. The Yellow Turbans were ultimately defeated and its surviving followers dispersed throughout China, but due to the turbulent situation throughout the empire, many were able to survive as bandits in mountainous areas, thus continuing their ability to contribute to the turmoil of the era. The Han army had no way to repel each and every raiding party and in 188, Emperor Ling granted direct administrative power over feudal provinces and direct command of regional military to local governors, as well promoting them in rank and filling such positions with members of the Liu family or court officials. This move made provinces (zhou) official administrative units, and although they had power to combat rebellions, the later intra-government chaos allowed these local governors to easily rule independently of the central government.

That same year 188, Emperor Ling died, and another struggle began between the court eunuchs for control of the Imperial family. This event prompted the invitation of general Dong Zhuo to enter Luoyang from the northwest boundary of China. At the time China faced the powerful barbarians of Qiang tribe to the northwest, and thus Dong Zhuo controlled a large army with elite training. When he brought the army to Luoyang, he was able to easily overpower the existing armies of both sides and took control of the imperial court, ushering in a period of civil war across China.

The earlier, "unofficial" part of the period, from 184 to 220, was marked by chaotic infighting between warlords in various parts of China. The middle part of the period, from 220 and 263, was marked by a more militarily stable arrangement between three rival states, Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu.  The later part of this period was marked by the collapse of the tripartite situation: first the destruction of Shu by Wei (263), then the overthrow of Wei by the Jin Dynasty (265), and the destruction of Wu by Jin (280).

Buddhism in China

Some Buddhism scriptures arrived in China as early as in the Warring States period but it did not find many adherents in China then. Only in the 2nd century AC, aided by some similarities with Taoism, acquired a sizeable following and many Buddhist texts were translated from Sanskrit into Chinese.

The collapse of Han dynasty around 220 AC, was followed by a period of confusion which continued to trouble Chinese society for the next 350 years. During this period Confucianism and Taoism gradually yielded place to Buddhism. The new Mongolian rulers from the Northern Wei dynasty and some rulers in the south like emperor Wu found in Buddhism a great opportunity to demolish the old order and establish a new one. As a result by 6th Century China was teaming with millions of Buddhist monks and thousands of monasteries.

During this turbulent period in China, two major developments took place in Buddhism. One group consisting mostly of the sophisticated gentry dwelled on the philosophical and mystical aspects of Buddhism, while the other group dominated by rural folk followed Buddhism in their own superstitious and simple ways imparting to it in the process a peculiar Chinese character. During this period many Buddhist scholars came to China from the east and worked selflessly to make Buddhism a mass religion.

Between the 6th Century and 10th Century China was ruled by Sui and Tang dynasties who were also patrons of Buddhism. During this period Buddhism reached its glorious heights in China. At the same time a process of degeneration also began. Many Buddhist monasteries turned to serious business and indulged in farming, trade and money lending for their own benefit neglecting the spiritual side of their responsibilities. The fall of Buddhism began during the reign of Wuzong of Tang (841-847), he ordered the general destruction of all Buddhist establishments and return of all Buddhist monks and nuns to lay life.

In 1280 the Yuan dynasty (Mongols) adopted Lamaism, the Tibetan version of Buddhism, as state religion.

Herranz Martín: The war in the world

Herranz Martín: The war in the world: "The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE) became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the dynasty's authori..."

The war in the world

The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE) became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion led by Liu Bang of the former Han state who assumed the title "emperor" (huangdi) and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BCE). Chang'an was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han which lasted for four centuries.

Han faced first the opposition of former Chu state leaders, later he fought against the Xiongnu (Huns), nomadic tribes in the north and as a result of this fight, in an attempt to divide the Huns, Han brought the empire to Central Asia creating the Silk Road.

The Han Dynasty actually consists of two separate dynasties divided right by the middle. The original Han Dynasty was overthrown when wealthy families gained more power than the emperor and Wang Mang, eventually declared himself emperor of a new dynasty, the Xin (new) but was overthrown by a secret society of peasants known as the Red Eyebrows. Descendents of the Han eventually joined in the uprising, and it was the armies of these nobles, under the leadership of Liu Xiu, who restaured the Han dynasty.

Internal struggles for power taxed the peasants until in 184, when another peasant uprising occurred. This movement was initiated by the Yellow Turbans and served to unite the factions that had previously been fighting because they needed to unite to defeat the Yellow Turbans. Although Han finally submitted them, the country did not return to a unified state. Rather, three kingdoms emerged and the Han Dynasty came to an end.

Once the empire was consolidated by Han its main threat no longer arose from other states but from peasant uprisings. This is the new form of war for China until almost the XX century. When dynasties changed or foreign dynasties overtook power in China, it was facilitated by a previous internal weakness of the very powerful Chinese state. This uprising peasant phenomenon is seen, understood and recorded as early as by Han scholars in its economic terms and the creation of a bureaucrat system of control of the empire officially based in Confucianism was an attempt of the authorities to put this almost natural process under control.

Of the four Chinese Classics, the one dedicated to war, The Three Kingdoms solemnly starts: “The state is united, then it must disintegrate, the state is disintegrated, then it must reunite…”

北有长城、南有灵渠 - In the north Great Wall and in the south Lingqu canal

秦-Qin 221 BC–207 BC

During the Qin Dynasty all non-Legalist philosophies were suppressed and early Han Dynasty emperors did the same. Legalism, the state-adopted school of thought, denounced the feudal system and encouraged severe punishments, particularly when the emperor was disobeyed; individual rights were devalued when they conflicted with the government's or the ruler's wishes, and merchants and scholars were considered unproductive, fit for elimination. The First Emperor ordered the burning of all books on non-Legalist philosophical viewpoints and intellectual subjects. This decree was passed in 213 BC, and also stipulated that all scholars who refused to submit their books to be burned would be executed by premature burial.

All aspects of life were standardized under the highly bureaucratic and hierarchical Qin government; from language, it standardized the writing system to be of uniform size and shape across the whole country up today, to measurements and to more practical details, such as the length of chariot axles. Qin Shihuang and his advisers also introduced new laws and practices that ended feudalism in China, replacing it with a centralized, bureaucratic government. Qin Shihuang also accomplised the two main achievements of Ancient Chinese ingineering; the Great Wall and the Lingqu canal, both with military purposes; the Great Wall to protect the north and the Lingqu canal to supply the army to conquest the south.

The end of Chinese Thought

The development of Chinese thought is somewhat the story of a frustration. It emerged as an attempt to put an end to the endless war and chaos among the numerous Chinese states after the collapse of the Zhou dynasty and restore unity by pacific means but it was finally achieved through a bigger and more assertive use of violence.

Confucius compiled old dynasties documents and studied the ways and methods they used to keep the world together and ensured peace and order in the empire. He assumed the position of adviser for the rulers and offered them his teaching promising them that if they followed the rules in terms of etiquette and rituals according with a “natural” hierarchical system, order would be restored. On top of the hierarchical system is the emperor or Son of Heaven who should act with benevolence as guideline for all his decisions which shall all aim at his subject’s welfare. Mengzi was actually offered that chance and became a state adviser but nothing was achieved. He later complained that his advises were not heard or followed.

Taoists, however, as much as in Laozi as in Zhuangzi, were skeptical about the possibility of any good life in society, therefore they preached to flee from society returning to nature, or, if to avoid society was not possible, they should keep a low profile not getting involved in politics and hide from others. Taoism preached to fix our mind to the Tao and follow it in a search for immortality but also as the best way or technic to hide our self from other people`s understanding.

Mohism departing point was to stick to the Golden Rule as expressed by Confucius incorporated to his concept of “ren” or humanity:

“do to others what you want them to do to you”.

Mo purpose was to bring this basic principle to its systematization and proposed universal love or impartial care for mutual benefit defying Confucianism system based on the ruler benevolence. Mohists were outlaws but organized in well trained militias which would support the weak side against the stronger one as their way to show universal and impartial love.

Time passed by and war would not stop but increase and other thinkers, advisers, and philosophers were just serving the interests of the rulers by teaching them strategies or diplomacy in order to help them to achieve their particular goals for increasing power and no longer trying to unify the world or empire according to a concept valid for all.

Finally, the Legalist school applied many of the strategy schools methods into an integral organization of the estate Qin by applying deception and violence to make it stronger than all other states and achieved to conquer them and unify the world.

Despite Qin ruthless system and aggressions, the wish for unity in other state´s people mind might have played a role in facilitating Qin conquest. They were not able to react against Qin`s threat in a firm and concerted way. Some recent films as Hero or The Emperor and the Assassin, based on a real attempt to kill the Qin king referred by Han dynasty historian Sima Qian, show the doubts on the Assassin side about the convenience of killing the king; he was actually about to put in place what all philosophers had been for centuries looking for; the unification of the world as the realistic way of end with war.

Legalism - 法家

The Legalist school most famous proponent and contributor was Han Fei Zi (韓非子) who proposed the following three tools for a ruler to govern his subjects:

Fa 法; literally "law or principle": The law code must be clearly written and made public. All people under the ruler were equal before the law. Laws should reward those who obey them and punish accordingly those who dare to break them. Thus it is guaranteed that actions taken are systematically predictable. In addition, the system of law ran the state, not the ruler, a statement of rule of law. If the law is successfully enforced, even a weak ruler will be strong.

Shu 術; "method, tactic or art": No one can fathom the ruler's motivations, and thus no one can know which behaviour might help them getting ahead; except for following the 法 or laws.

The Legalists emphasized that the head of state was endowed with the "mystery of authority” and as such his decisions must always command the respect and obedience of the people. The state (country) comes first, not the individual. The emperor’s very figure brought legitimacy. In emphasizing the power of rulership, Legalists sought to devalue the importance of the charismatic ruler. Skillful rulers hid their true intentions and feigned nonchalance. To ensure that all of his words were revered, the wise ruler kept a low profile. Thus, theoretically, by cloaking both his desires and his will, the Emperors checked sycophancy and forced his subject to heed his dictates.

Shi 勢; "legitimacy, power or charisma": It is the position of the ruler, not the ruler himself or herself, that holds the power. Therefore, analysis of the trends, the context, and the facts are essential for a real ruler.

One of the first adopters of Legalism was the statesman Shang Yang who advocated the belief that all people are fundamentally flawed and humanity was selfish and evil, therefore harsh punishments are required to keep them in order. Shang Yang became prime minister of the Qin and transformed the state into a vigorously regulated machine, the sole purpose of which was the elimination of all rivals. Shang Yang swept away the aristocracy and implemented a meritocracy – those who achieved could reach high places and birth privilege was reserved exclusively for the ruler of the state. Previously the army had been controlled by nobles and constituted of feudal levies. Now generals could come from any part of society, provided they had sufficient skill. In addition, troops were highly trained and disciplined. In this way Qin become the most powerful state in China before it eventually brought all of the six other states together (Qi, Chu, Han, Yan, Zhao, and Wei) under Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a unified China.

Zhuangzi 庄子

Zhuangzi (370 to 301 BCE), or Chuang tzu, is assumed to be a Daoist philosopher, a Laozi follower, in consideration of his writing spirit, as otherwise he does not mention or acknowledge such background.

Zhuangzi is traditionally credited as the author of at least part of the work bearing his name, the Zhuangzi. The text is a collection, not a developing argument. Not only is Zhuangzi a collection of sayings attributed to Zhuangzi, it also includes a number of stories, all presented haphazardly. It would be easy for another author to insert new material without disturbing the flow before the text had been stabilized centuries after Zhuangzi's death, and possibly escape detection.

In general, Zhuangzi's philosophy is skeptical, arguing that life is limited and knowledge to be gained is unlimited. To use the limited to pursue the unlimited, he said, was foolish. Our language and cognition in general presuppose a dao to which each of us is committed by our separate past—our paths. Consequently, we should be aware that our most carefully considered conclusions might seem misguided had we experienced a different past. "Our heart-minds are completed along with our bodies." Natural dispositions to behavior combine with acquired ones—including dispositions to use names of things, to approve/disapprove based on those names and to act in accordance to the embodied standards. Thinking about and choosing our next step down our dao or path is conditioned by this unique set of natural acquisitions.

Zhuangzi's thought can also be considered a precursor of relativism in systems of value. His relativism even leads him to doubt the basis of pragmatic arguments since this presupposes that life is good and death bad. Another example about two famous courtesans points out that there is no universally objective standard for beauty.

Once Zhuangzi dreamt he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering around, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. He didn't know he was Zhuangzi. Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuangzi. But he didn't know if he was Zhuangzi who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuangzi.
This hints at many questions in the philosophy of mind, philosophy of language.

Zhuangzi's philosophy was very influential in the development of Chinese Buddhism, especially Chán (known in Japan as Zen).

Zhuangzi said the world "does not need governing; in fact it should not be governed," and, "Good order results spontaneously when things are let alone."

In Chapter 18, Zhuangzi also mentions life forms have an innate ability or power (hua 化) to transform and adapt to their surroundings.

Mengzi - 孟子

Mencius (372 – 289 BCE) was the synthesizer and developer of applied Confucian thought. Before he died at the age 84, he was said to have completed the editorial work of Confucius.

Mencius served as counselor to princes in the state of Qi and later visited other states to advice on government. After about 15 years he appears to have concluded that while treated with respect, he was offering advice that was ignored. Many of the kings and princes at that time were interested in pleasure and conquest rather than theories of good government. Mencius therefore retired from active life and turned to philosophy and the compilation of the substantial book that bears his name.

Mencius emphasized the significance of the common citizens in the state. While Confucianism generally regards rulers highly, he argued that it is acceptable for the subjects to overthrow or even kill a ruler who ignores the people's needs and rules harshly. This is because a ruler who does not rule justly is no longer a true ruler.

Human nature has an innate tendency towards goodness, but moral rightness cannot be instructed down to the last detail. This is why merely external controls always fail in improving society. True improvement results from educational cultivation in favorable environments. Likewise, bad environments tend to corrupt the human will.


According to Mencius, education must awaken the innate abilities of the human mind. He denounced memorization and advocated active interrogation of the text, saying, "One who believes all of a book would be better off without books." One should check for internal consistency by comparing sections and debate the probability of factual accounts by comparing them with experience.