Chinese dynasties: Yuan Dynasty 元朝 (1271-1368)

The Yuan Dynasty 元朝 (1271-1368) was founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an imperial dynasty of China. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu (Chinese: 太祖)

Genghis Khan defeated in 1227 the Western Xia and in 1234 he defeated the Jin. This was to open the way to unify the whole of China for the first time under a non-Chinese regime, a people who eventually were to become a ethnic group.

Following Genghis' death, his grandson succeeded him and as Kublai Khan, who was known as Emperor Shizu, continued to annex Chinese territory and in 1279 the Yuan forces captured Hangzhou, the capital city of the Southern Song.

With their dynasty now firmly established in the Chinese empire, the Yuan found themselves rulers of a complex group of peoples who inhabited the largest land based empire ever to exist, stretching from what is now Korea and western Russia in the north and from Burma to Iraq in the south. But they were rulers with no experience of administration. Consequently, they adopted Chinese political and cultural models.

Ruling from their capital city Dadu, nowadays Beijing, the Mongol Khans created four classes of people to rule upon; first the Mongols themselves, next came their allies and non-Chinese people from Inner- Asia, a class to be called the Semu. The third class was made up of the people of Northern China and they were called the Han. Lastly, came the people of Southern China, who were referred to as the Nan. The Mongols in the first group enjoyed the greatest privileges under the regime, while the fourth group, the Nan were to have the least. The same applied in so far as taxation and the penal code were concerned as this had a very divisive effect on the population as a whole. Mixed marriages were forbidden and it was impossible to gain promotion from one group to another.

Yuan dynasty created the administrative regions of China, maintained by next dynasties and creating the basis for the actual Chinese provinces.

The Yuan regime can be roughly divided into three periods: the early, middle and late periods. The early period began from the reign of Kublai Khan, Yuan Emperor Shizu, until 1294. During this period rulers adopted laws from the Han nationality and set up political, economic and cultural systems that promoted social development.

The middle years (1307 to 1323) marked a period of decline. During this period, social conflicts and the competition for imperial power became intensified and included continuous uprisings all around the country.

From 1329 in the late-Yuan period, peasant uprisings accelerated the decline of the regime. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Yuan dynasty had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power and retreat to the north. In 1368 the forces Zhu Yuanzhang entered Beijing and rebuild the dynasty of the Han nationality, namely the Ming Dynasty.

The last Yuan Emperor together with his court fled from the country while many of the Mongols were content to remain and become integrated with the Chinese population. The Yuan Dynasty lasted ninety-eight years with eleven emperors. The Manchu emperors of the Qing Dynasty (1644 -1911) accepted the final submission of the Mongol rulers and thus Mongolia became a part of China.

Kublai Khan promoted science and religion. He issued paper banknotes in 1273. A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan Dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the written vernacular. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the Mongol World Empire also permanently influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan Dynasty and its ally and subordinate in Persia, the Ilkhanate, encouraged this development. Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-rite Tantric Buddhism had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of the Yuan Dynasty introduced Middle Eastern cartography, astronomy, medicine, clothing, and diet in East Asia. Middle Eastern crops such as carrots, turnips, new varieties of lemons, eggplants, and melons, high-quality granulated sugar, and cotton were all either introduced or successfully popularized by the Yuan Mongols.

Chinsese Dynasties: Tang - 唐 (618 - 907)

The Tang Dynasty was founded by the Li (李) family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire. The dynasty was interrupted briefly by the Second Zhou Dynasty (690– 705) when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne, becoming the first and only Chinese empress regnant, ruling in her own right.

With its capital at Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the most populous city in the world at the time with 2 m. people, Tang Dynasty is generally regarded as a high point in Chinese civilization. In two censuses of the 7th and 8th centuries, the Tang records estimated the population by number of registered households at about 50 million people and in the 9th century, it is estimated that the population had grown by then to about 80 million people.

With its large population base, the dynasty was able to raise professional and conscripted armies of hundreds of thousands of troops to contend with nomadic powers in dominating Inner Asia and the lucrative trade routes along the Silk Road. Various kingdoms and states paid tribute to the Tang court, while the Tang also conquered or subdued several regions which it indirectly controlled through a protectorate system. Besides political hegemony, the Tang also exerted a powerful cultural influence over neighboring states such as those in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

The Tang Dynasty was largely a period of progress and stability, except during the An Shi Rebellion and the decline of central authority in the latter half of the dynasty. Like the previous Sui Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty maintained a civil service system by drafting officials through standardized examinations and recommendations to office. This civil order was undermined by the rise of regional military governors known as jiedushi during the 9th century. The weakened central government largely withdrew from managing the economy, though the country's mercantile affairs stayed intact and commercial trade continued to thrive regardless.

Chinese culture flourished and further matured during the Tang era; it is considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry. Two of China's most famous poets, Li Bai and Du Fu, belonged to this age, as did many famous painters such as Han Gan, Zhang Xuan, and Zhou Fang. There was a rich variety of historical literature compiled by scholars, as well as encyclopedias and geographical works.

There were many notable innovations during the Tang, including the development of woodblock printing.

Buddhism became a major influence in Chinese culture, with native Chinese sects gaining prominence. However, Buddhism would later be persecuted by the state and decline in influence. Although the dynasty and central government were in decline by the 9th century, art and culture continued to flourish.

Chinese Dynasties: Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui (265 - 618)

Jin Dynasty -晋朝 (265 and 420), divided in Western Jin (265–316) and Eastern Jin (317–420). Western Jin was founded by Sima Yan, with its capital at Luoyang, while Eastern Jin was begun by Sima Rui, with its capital at Jiankang, modern Nanjing. The shift of the capital reflects a process that destroyed the whole political, social and economic system of north China. Inner wars and the uprising of Non-Chinese chieftains contributed to the downfall of the Sima family. Together with the imperial clan, a great part of the northern aristocracy fled to the south where they had to arrange their rule with the powerful local magnates of the lower Yangtse area. The Eastern Jin was the first of a couple of dynasties (Southern Dynasties 南朝) that developed a culture different from that of northern China. As an economical center of whole China, the south should be of great importance for the whole of China until today.

Southern and Northern Dynasties - 南北朝 (420-589)Though an age of civil war and political chaos, it was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spreading of Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism. The period saw the first recorded large-scale migration of Han Chinese people to the lands south of the Yangtze River.

The Sui Dynasty (581-618) was founded by Emperor Wen of Sui, the Sui Dynasty capital was at Luoyang. His reign saw the reunification of Southern and Northern China and the construction of the Grand Canal. Emperors Wen and Yang undertook various reforms to reduce the rich-poor social gap that resulted in enhanced agricultural productivity, centralization of government power. The Three Departments and Six Ministries system was officially instituted, coinage was standardized and re-unified, defense was improved and the Great Wall expanded. Buddhism was also spread and encouraged throughout the empire, uniting the varied people and cultures of China.

This dynasty has often been compared to the earlier Qin Dynasty in tenor and in the ruthlessness of its accomplishments. The Sui dynasty's early demise was attributed to the government's tyrannical demands on the people, who bore the crushing burden of taxes and compulsory labor. These resources were overstrained by the completion of the Grand Canal—and other construction projects, including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Weakened by costly and disastrous military campaigns against Goguryeo in the Korean Peninsula, which ended with the defeat of Sui in the early seventh century, the dynasty disintegrated through a combination of popular revolts, disloyalty, and assassination. Sui, however, had set up the conditions for the following great Tang dynasty.

Buddhism in China

Some Buddhism scriptures arrived in China as early as in the Warring States period but it did not find many adherents in China then. Only in the 2nd century AC, aided by some similarities with Taoism, acquired a sizeable following and many Buddhist texts were translated from Sanskrit into Chinese.

The collapse of Han dynasty around 220 AC, was followed by a period of confusion which continued to trouble Chinese society for the next 350 years. During this period Confucianism and Taoism gradually yielded place to Buddhism. The new Mongolian rulers from the Northern Wei dynasty and some rulers in the south like emperor Wu found in Buddhism a great opportunity to demolish the old order and establish a new one. As a result by 6th Century China was teaming with millions of Buddhist monks and thousands of monasteries.

During this turbulent period in China, two major developments took place in Buddhism. One group consisting mostly of the sophisticated gentry dwelled on the philosophical and mystical aspects of Buddhism, while the other group dominated by rural folk followed Buddhism in their own superstitious and simple ways imparting to it in the process a peculiar Chinese character. During this period many Buddhist scholars came to China from the east and worked selflessly to make Buddhism a mass religion.

Between the 6th Century and 10th Century China was ruled by Sui and Tang dynasties who were also patrons of Buddhism. During this period Buddhism reached its glorious heights in China. At the same time a process of degeneration also began. Many Buddhist monasteries turned to serious business and indulged in farming, trade and money lending for their own benefit neglecting the spiritual side of their responsibilities. The fall of Buddhism began during the reign of Wuzong of Tang (841-847), he ordered the general destruction of all Buddhist establishments and return of all Buddhist monks and nuns to lay life.

In 1280 the Yuan dynasty (Mongols) adopted Lamaism, the Tibetan version of Buddhism, as state religion.