Chinsese Dynasties: Tang - 唐 (618 - 907)

The Tang Dynasty was founded by the Li (李) family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire. The dynasty was interrupted briefly by the Second Zhou Dynasty (690– 705) when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne, becoming the first and only Chinese empress regnant, ruling in her own right.

With its capital at Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the most populous city in the world at the time with 2 m. people, Tang Dynasty is generally regarded as a high point in Chinese civilization. In two censuses of the 7th and 8th centuries, the Tang records estimated the population by number of registered households at about 50 million people and in the 9th century, it is estimated that the population had grown by then to about 80 million people.

With its large population base, the dynasty was able to raise professional and conscripted armies of hundreds of thousands of troops to contend with nomadic powers in dominating Inner Asia and the lucrative trade routes along the Silk Road. Various kingdoms and states paid tribute to the Tang court, while the Tang also conquered or subdued several regions which it indirectly controlled through a protectorate system. Besides political hegemony, the Tang also exerted a powerful cultural influence over neighboring states such as those in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

The Tang Dynasty was largely a period of progress and stability, except during the An Shi Rebellion and the decline of central authority in the latter half of the dynasty. Like the previous Sui Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty maintained a civil service system by drafting officials through standardized examinations and recommendations to office. This civil order was undermined by the rise of regional military governors known as jiedushi during the 9th century. The weakened central government largely withdrew from managing the economy, though the country's mercantile affairs stayed intact and commercial trade continued to thrive regardless.

Chinese culture flourished and further matured during the Tang era; it is considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry. Two of China's most famous poets, Li Bai and Du Fu, belonged to this age, as did many famous painters such as Han Gan, Zhang Xuan, and Zhou Fang. There was a rich variety of historical literature compiled by scholars, as well as encyclopedias and geographical works.

There were many notable innovations during the Tang, including the development of woodblock printing.

Buddhism became a major influence in Chinese culture, with native Chinese sects gaining prominence. However, Buddhism would later be persecuted by the state and decline in influence. Although the dynasty and central government were in decline by the 9th century, art and culture continued to flourish.

Chinese Dynasties: Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui (265 - 618)

Jin Dynasty -晋朝 (265 and 420), divided in Western Jin (265–316) and Eastern Jin (317–420). Western Jin was founded by Sima Yan, with its capital at Luoyang, while Eastern Jin was begun by Sima Rui, with its capital at Jiankang, modern Nanjing. The shift of the capital reflects a process that destroyed the whole political, social and economic system of north China. Inner wars and the uprising of Non-Chinese chieftains contributed to the downfall of the Sima family. Together with the imperial clan, a great part of the northern aristocracy fled to the south where they had to arrange their rule with the powerful local magnates of the lower Yangtse area. The Eastern Jin was the first of a couple of dynasties (Southern Dynasties 南朝) that developed a culture different from that of northern China. As an economical center of whole China, the south should be of great importance for the whole of China until today.

Southern and Northern Dynasties - 南北朝 (420-589)Though an age of civil war and political chaos, it was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spreading of Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism. The period saw the first recorded large-scale migration of Han Chinese people to the lands south of the Yangtze River.

The Sui Dynasty (581-618) was founded by Emperor Wen of Sui, the Sui Dynasty capital was at Luoyang. His reign saw the reunification of Southern and Northern China and the construction of the Grand Canal. Emperors Wen and Yang undertook various reforms to reduce the rich-poor social gap that resulted in enhanced agricultural productivity, centralization of government power. The Three Departments and Six Ministries system was officially instituted, coinage was standardized and re-unified, defense was improved and the Great Wall expanded. Buddhism was also spread and encouraged throughout the empire, uniting the varied people and cultures of China.

This dynasty has often been compared to the earlier Qin Dynasty in tenor and in the ruthlessness of its accomplishments. The Sui dynasty's early demise was attributed to the government's tyrannical demands on the people, who bore the crushing burden of taxes and compulsory labor. These resources were overstrained by the completion of the Grand Canal—and other construction projects, including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Weakened by costly and disastrous military campaigns against Goguryeo in the Korean Peninsula, which ended with the defeat of Sui in the early seventh century, the dynasty disintegrated through a combination of popular revolts, disloyalty, and assassination. Sui, however, had set up the conditions for the following great Tang dynasty.

Chinese Dynasties: Three Kingdoms period - 三国时代;

From now on, we are going to see in next post Chinese history and culture, to go back to Chinese Thought as derivate from its school of thought and from its historical experience.

The Han dynasty is followed by the Three Kingdoms, even if this period might not be so relevant nor lasting in history it is a well known part of Chinese history due to the famous Roman of The Three Kingdoms novel, written during the Ming dynasty by Luo Guangzhong, one of the four Chinese literature classics along with Journey to the West, The Outlaw of Marsh and A Dream of the Red Mansions. The Three Kingdoms is the one focused in war.

The Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 attracted many followers and soon numbered several hundred thousands receiving support from many parts of China. The Yellow Turbans were ultimately defeated and its surviving followers dispersed throughout China, but due to the turbulent situation throughout the empire, many were able to survive as bandits in mountainous areas, thus continuing their ability to contribute to the turmoil of the era. The Han army had no way to repel each and every raiding party and in 188, Emperor Ling granted direct administrative power over feudal provinces and direct command of regional military to local governors, as well promoting them in rank and filling such positions with members of the Liu family or court officials. This move made provinces (zhou) official administrative units, and although they had power to combat rebellions, the later intra-government chaos allowed these local governors to easily rule independently of the central government.

That same year 188, Emperor Ling died, and another struggle began between the court eunuchs for control of the Imperial family. This event prompted the invitation of general Dong Zhuo to enter Luoyang from the northwest boundary of China. At the time China faced the powerful barbarians of Qiang tribe to the northwest, and thus Dong Zhuo controlled a large army with elite training. When he brought the army to Luoyang, he was able to easily overpower the existing armies of both sides and took control of the imperial court, ushering in a period of civil war across China.

The earlier, "unofficial" part of the period, from 184 to 220, was marked by chaotic infighting between warlords in various parts of China. The middle part of the period, from 220 and 263, was marked by a more militarily stable arrangement between three rival states, Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu.  The later part of this period was marked by the collapse of the tripartite situation: first the destruction of Shu by Wei (263), then the overthrow of Wei by the Jin Dynasty (265), and the destruction of Wu by Jin (280).

Buddhism in China

Some Buddhism scriptures arrived in China as early as in the Warring States period but it did not find many adherents in China then. Only in the 2nd century AC, aided by some similarities with Taoism, acquired a sizeable following and many Buddhist texts were translated from Sanskrit into Chinese.

The collapse of Han dynasty around 220 AC, was followed by a period of confusion which continued to trouble Chinese society for the next 350 years. During this period Confucianism and Taoism gradually yielded place to Buddhism. The new Mongolian rulers from the Northern Wei dynasty and some rulers in the south like emperor Wu found in Buddhism a great opportunity to demolish the old order and establish a new one. As a result by 6th Century China was teaming with millions of Buddhist monks and thousands of monasteries.

During this turbulent period in China, two major developments took place in Buddhism. One group consisting mostly of the sophisticated gentry dwelled on the philosophical and mystical aspects of Buddhism, while the other group dominated by rural folk followed Buddhism in their own superstitious and simple ways imparting to it in the process a peculiar Chinese character. During this period many Buddhist scholars came to China from the east and worked selflessly to make Buddhism a mass religion.

Between the 6th Century and 10th Century China was ruled by Sui and Tang dynasties who were also patrons of Buddhism. During this period Buddhism reached its glorious heights in China. At the same time a process of degeneration also began. Many Buddhist monasteries turned to serious business and indulged in farming, trade and money lending for their own benefit neglecting the spiritual side of their responsibilities. The fall of Buddhism began during the reign of Wuzong of Tang (841-847), he ordered the general destruction of all Buddhist establishments and return of all Buddhist monks and nuns to lay life.

In 1280 the Yuan dynasty (Mongols) adopted Lamaism, the Tibetan version of Buddhism, as state religion.

Herranz Martín: The war in the world

Herranz Martín: The war in the world: "The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE) became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the dynasty's authori..."

The war in the world

The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE) became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion led by Liu Bang of the former Han state who assumed the title "emperor" (huangdi) and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BCE). Chang'an was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han which lasted for four centuries.

Han faced first the opposition of former Chu state leaders, later he fought against the Xiongnu (Huns), nomadic tribes in the north and as a result of this fight, in an attempt to divide the Huns, Han brought the empire to Central Asia creating the Silk Road.

The Han Dynasty actually consists of two separate dynasties divided right by the middle. The original Han Dynasty was overthrown when wealthy families gained more power than the emperor and Wang Mang, eventually declared himself emperor of a new dynasty, the Xin (new) but was overthrown by a secret society of peasants known as the Red Eyebrows. Descendents of the Han eventually joined in the uprising, and it was the armies of these nobles, under the leadership of Liu Xiu, who restaured the Han dynasty.

Internal struggles for power taxed the peasants until in 184, when another peasant uprising occurred. This movement was initiated by the Yellow Turbans and served to unite the factions that had previously been fighting because they needed to unite to defeat the Yellow Turbans. Although Han finally submitted them, the country did not return to a unified state. Rather, three kingdoms emerged and the Han Dynasty came to an end.

Once the empire was consolidated by Han its main threat no longer arose from other states but from peasant uprisings. This is the new form of war for China until almost the XX century. When dynasties changed or foreign dynasties overtook power in China, it was facilitated by a previous internal weakness of the very powerful Chinese state. This uprising peasant phenomenon is seen, understood and recorded as early as by Han scholars in its economic terms and the creation of a bureaucrat system of control of the empire officially based in Confucianism was an attempt of the authorities to put this almost natural process under control.

Of the four Chinese Classics, the one dedicated to war, The Three Kingdoms solemnly starts: “The state is united, then it must disintegrate, the state is disintegrated, then it must reunite…”