秦-Qin 221 BC–207 BC
During the Qin Dynasty all non-Legalist philosophies were suppressed and early Han Dynasty emperors did the same. Legalism, the state-adopted school of thought, denounced the feudal system and encouraged severe punishments, particularly when the emperor was disobeyed; individual rights were devalued when they conflicted with the government's or the ruler's wishes, and merchants and scholars were considered unproductive, fit for elimination. The First Emperor ordered the burning of all books on non-Legalist philosophical viewpoints and intellectual subjects. This decree was passed in 213 BC, and also stipulated that all scholars who refused to submit their books to be burned would be executed by premature burial.
All aspects of life were standardized under the highly bureaucratic and hierarchical Qin government; from language, it standardized the writing system to be of uniform size and shape across the whole country up today, to measurements and to more practical details, such as the length of chariot axles. Qin Shihuang and his advisers also introduced new laws and practices that ended feudalism in China, replacing it with a centralized, bureaucratic government. Qin Shihuang also accomplised the two main achievements of Ancient Chinese ingineering; the Great Wall and the Lingqu canal, both with military purposes; the Great Wall to protect the north and the Lingqu canal to supply the army to conquest the south.
China's understanding
sábado, 26 de febrero de 2011
sábado, 19 de febrero de 2011
The end of Chinese Thought
The development of Chinese thought is somewhat the story of a frustration. It emerged as an attempt to put an end to the endless war and chaos among the numerous Chinese states after the collapse of the Zhou dynasty and restore unity by pacific means but it was finally achieved through a bigger and more assertive use of violence.
Confucius compiled old dynasties documents and studied the ways and methods they used to keep the world together and ensured peace and order in the empire. He assumed the position of adviser for the rulers and offered them his teaching promising them that if they followed the rules in terms of etiquette and rituals according with a “natural” hierarchical system, order would be restored. On top of the hierarchical system is the emperor or Son of Heaven who should act with benevolence as guideline for all his decisions which shall all aim at his subject’s welfare. Mengzi was actually offered that chance and became a state adviser but nothing was achieved. He later complained that his advises were not heard or followed.
Taoists, however, as much as in Laozi as in Zhuangzi, were skeptical about the possibility of any good life in society, therefore they preached to flee from society returning to nature, or, if to avoid society was not possible, they should keep a low profile not getting involved in politics and hide from others. Taoism preached to fix our mind to the Tao and follow it in a search for immortality but also as the best way or technic to hide our self from other people`s understanding.
Mohism departing point was to stick to the Golden Rule as expressed by Confucius incorporated to his concept of “ren” or humanity:
Time passed by and war would not stop but increase and other thinkers, advisers, and philosophers were just serving the interests of the rulers by teaching them strategies or diplomacy in order to help them to achieve their particular goals for increasing power and no longer trying to unify the world or empire according to a concept valid for all.
Finally, the Legalist school applied many of the strategy schools methods into an integral organization of the estate Qin by applying deception and violence to make it stronger than all other states and achieved to conquer them and unify the world.
Despite Qin ruthless system and aggressions, the wish for unity in other state´s people mind might have played a role in facilitating Qin conquest. They were not able to react against Qin`s threat in a firm and concerted way. Some recent films as Hero or The Emperor and the Assassin, based on a real attempt to kill the Qin king referred by Han dynasty historian Sima Qian, show the doubts on the Assassin side about the convenience of killing the king; he was actually about to put in place what all philosophers had been for centuries looking for; the unification of the world as the realistic way of end with war.
Confucius compiled old dynasties documents and studied the ways and methods they used to keep the world together and ensured peace and order in the empire. He assumed the position of adviser for the rulers and offered them his teaching promising them that if they followed the rules in terms of etiquette and rituals according with a “natural” hierarchical system, order would be restored. On top of the hierarchical system is the emperor or Son of Heaven who should act with benevolence as guideline for all his decisions which shall all aim at his subject’s welfare. Mengzi was actually offered that chance and became a state adviser but nothing was achieved. He later complained that his advises were not heard or followed.
Taoists, however, as much as in Laozi as in Zhuangzi, were skeptical about the possibility of any good life in society, therefore they preached to flee from society returning to nature, or, if to avoid society was not possible, they should keep a low profile not getting involved in politics and hide from others. Taoism preached to fix our mind to the Tao and follow it in a search for immortality but also as the best way or technic to hide our self from other people`s understanding.
Mohism departing point was to stick to the Golden Rule as expressed by Confucius incorporated to his concept of “ren” or humanity:
“do to others what you want them to do to you”.Mo purpose was to bring this basic principle to its systematization and proposed universal love or impartial care for mutual benefit defying Confucianism system based on the ruler benevolence. Mohists were outlaws but organized in well trained militias which would support the weak side against the stronger one as their way to show universal and impartial love.
Time passed by and war would not stop but increase and other thinkers, advisers, and philosophers were just serving the interests of the rulers by teaching them strategies or diplomacy in order to help them to achieve their particular goals for increasing power and no longer trying to unify the world or empire according to a concept valid for all.
Finally, the Legalist school applied many of the strategy schools methods into an integral organization of the estate Qin by applying deception and violence to make it stronger than all other states and achieved to conquer them and unify the world.
Despite Qin ruthless system and aggressions, the wish for unity in other state´s people mind might have played a role in facilitating Qin conquest. They were not able to react against Qin`s threat in a firm and concerted way. Some recent films as Hero or The Emperor and the Assassin, based on a real attempt to kill the Qin king referred by Han dynasty historian Sima Qian, show the doubts on the Assassin side about the convenience of killing the king; he was actually about to put in place what all philosophers had been for centuries looking for; the unification of the world as the realistic way of end with war.
sábado, 12 de febrero de 2011
Legalism - 法家
The Legalist school most famous proponent and contributor was Han Fei Zi (韓非子) who proposed the following three tools for a ruler to govern his subjects:
Fa 法; literally "law or principle": The law code must be clearly written and made public. All people under the ruler were equal before the law. Laws should reward those who obey them and punish accordingly those who dare to break them. Thus it is guaranteed that actions taken are systematically predictable. In addition, the system of law ran the state, not the ruler, a statement of rule of law. If the law is successfully enforced, even a weak ruler will be strong.
Shu 術; "method, tactic or art": No one can fathom the ruler's motivations, and thus no one can know which behaviour might help them getting ahead; except for following the 法 or laws.
The Legalists emphasized that the head of state was endowed with the "mystery of authority” and as such his decisions must always command the respect and obedience of the people. The state (country) comes first, not the individual. The emperor’s very figure brought legitimacy. In emphasizing the power of rulership, Legalists sought to devalue the importance of the charismatic ruler. Skillful rulers hid their true intentions and feigned nonchalance. To ensure that all of his words were revered, the wise ruler kept a low profile. Thus, theoretically, by cloaking both his desires and his will, the Emperors checked sycophancy and forced his subject to heed his dictates.
Shi 勢; "legitimacy, power or charisma": It is the position of the ruler, not the ruler himself or herself, that holds the power. Therefore, analysis of the trends, the context, and the facts are essential for a real ruler.
One of the first adopters of Legalism was the statesman Shang Yang who advocated the belief that all people are fundamentally flawed and humanity was selfish and evil, therefore harsh punishments are required to keep them in order. Shang Yang became prime minister of the Qin and transformed the state into a vigorously regulated machine, the sole purpose of which was the elimination of all rivals. Shang Yang swept away the aristocracy and implemented a meritocracy – those who achieved could reach high places and birth privilege was reserved exclusively for the ruler of the state. Previously the army had been controlled by nobles and constituted of feudal levies. Now generals could come from any part of society, provided they had sufficient skill. In addition, troops were highly trained and disciplined. In this way Qin become the most powerful state in China before it eventually brought all of the six other states together (Qi, Chu, Han, Yan, Zhao, and Wei) under Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a unified China.
Fa 法; literally "law or principle": The law code must be clearly written and made public. All people under the ruler were equal before the law. Laws should reward those who obey them and punish accordingly those who dare to break them. Thus it is guaranteed that actions taken are systematically predictable. In addition, the system of law ran the state, not the ruler, a statement of rule of law. If the law is successfully enforced, even a weak ruler will be strong.
Shu 術; "method, tactic or art": No one can fathom the ruler's motivations, and thus no one can know which behaviour might help them getting ahead; except for following the 法 or laws.
The Legalists emphasized that the head of state was endowed with the "mystery of authority” and as such his decisions must always command the respect and obedience of the people. The state (country) comes first, not the individual. The emperor’s very figure brought legitimacy. In emphasizing the power of rulership, Legalists sought to devalue the importance of the charismatic ruler. Skillful rulers hid their true intentions and feigned nonchalance. To ensure that all of his words were revered, the wise ruler kept a low profile. Thus, theoretically, by cloaking both his desires and his will, the Emperors checked sycophancy and forced his subject to heed his dictates.
Shi 勢; "legitimacy, power or charisma": It is the position of the ruler, not the ruler himself or herself, that holds the power. Therefore, analysis of the trends, the context, and the facts are essential for a real ruler.
One of the first adopters of Legalism was the statesman Shang Yang who advocated the belief that all people are fundamentally flawed and humanity was selfish and evil, therefore harsh punishments are required to keep them in order. Shang Yang became prime minister of the Qin and transformed the state into a vigorously regulated machine, the sole purpose of which was the elimination of all rivals. Shang Yang swept away the aristocracy and implemented a meritocracy – those who achieved could reach high places and birth privilege was reserved exclusively for the ruler of the state. Previously the army had been controlled by nobles and constituted of feudal levies. Now generals could come from any part of society, provided they had sufficient skill. In addition, troops were highly trained and disciplined. In this way Qin become the most powerful state in China before it eventually brought all of the six other states together (Qi, Chu, Han, Yan, Zhao, and Wei) under Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a unified China.
miércoles, 9 de febrero de 2011
Zhuangzi 庄子
Zhuangzi (370 to 301 BCE), or Chuang tzu, is assumed to be a Daoist philosopher, a Laozi follower, in consideration of his writing spirit, as otherwise he does not mention or acknowledge such background.
Zhuangzi is traditionally credited as the author of at least part of the work bearing his name, the Zhuangzi. The text is a collection, not a developing argument. Not only is Zhuangzi a collection of sayings attributed to Zhuangzi, it also includes a number of stories, all presented haphazardly. It would be easy for another author to insert new material without disturbing the flow before the text had been stabilized centuries after Zhuangzi's death, and possibly escape detection.
In general, Zhuangzi's philosophy is skeptical, arguing that life is limited and knowledge to be gained is unlimited. To use the limited to pursue the unlimited, he said, was foolish. Our language and cognition in general presuppose a dao to which each of us is committed by our separate past—our paths. Consequently, we should be aware that our most carefully considered conclusions might seem misguided had we experienced a different past. "Our heart-minds are completed along with our bodies." Natural dispositions to behavior combine with acquired ones—including dispositions to use names of things, to approve/disapprove based on those names and to act in accordance to the embodied standards. Thinking about and choosing our next step down our dao or path is conditioned by this unique set of natural acquisitions.
Zhuangzi's thought can also be considered a precursor of relativism in systems of value. His relativism even leads him to doubt the basis of pragmatic arguments since this presupposes that life is good and death bad. Another example about two famous courtesans points out that there is no universally objective standard for beauty.
Once Zhuangzi dreamt he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering around, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. He didn't know he was Zhuangzi. Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuangzi. But he didn't know if he was Zhuangzi who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuangzi.
This hints at many questions in the philosophy of mind, philosophy of language.
Zhuangzi's philosophy was very influential in the development of Chinese Buddhism, especially Chán (known in Japan as Zen).
Zhuangzi said the world "does not need governing; in fact it should not be governed," and, "Good order results spontaneously when things are let alone."
In Chapter 18, Zhuangzi also mentions life forms have an innate ability or power (hua 化) to transform and adapt to their surroundings.
Zhuangzi is traditionally credited as the author of at least part of the work bearing his name, the Zhuangzi. The text is a collection, not a developing argument. Not only is Zhuangzi a collection of sayings attributed to Zhuangzi, it also includes a number of stories, all presented haphazardly. It would be easy for another author to insert new material without disturbing the flow before the text had been stabilized centuries after Zhuangzi's death, and possibly escape detection.
In general, Zhuangzi's philosophy is skeptical, arguing that life is limited and knowledge to be gained is unlimited. To use the limited to pursue the unlimited, he said, was foolish. Our language and cognition in general presuppose a dao to which each of us is committed by our separate past—our paths. Consequently, we should be aware that our most carefully considered conclusions might seem misguided had we experienced a different past. "Our heart-minds are completed along with our bodies." Natural dispositions to behavior combine with acquired ones—including dispositions to use names of things, to approve/disapprove based on those names and to act in accordance to the embodied standards. Thinking about and choosing our next step down our dao or path is conditioned by this unique set of natural acquisitions.
Zhuangzi's thought can also be considered a precursor of relativism in systems of value. His relativism even leads him to doubt the basis of pragmatic arguments since this presupposes that life is good and death bad. Another example about two famous courtesans points out that there is no universally objective standard for beauty.
Once Zhuangzi dreamt he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering around, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. He didn't know he was Zhuangzi. Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuangzi. But he didn't know if he was Zhuangzi who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuangzi.
This hints at many questions in the philosophy of mind, philosophy of language.
Zhuangzi's philosophy was very influential in the development of Chinese Buddhism, especially Chán (known in Japan as Zen).
Zhuangzi said the world "does not need governing; in fact it should not be governed," and, "Good order results spontaneously when things are let alone."
In Chapter 18, Zhuangzi also mentions life forms have an innate ability or power (hua 化) to transform and adapt to their surroundings.
Mengzi - 孟子
Mencius (372 – 289 BCE) was the synthesizer and developer of applied Confucian thought. Before he died at the age 84, he was said to have completed the editorial work of Confucius.
Mencius served as counselor to princes in the state of Qi and later visited other states to advice on government. After about 15 years he appears to have concluded that while treated with respect, he was offering advice that was ignored. Many of the kings and princes at that time were interested in pleasure and conquest rather than theories of good government. Mencius therefore retired from active life and turned to philosophy and the compilation of the substantial book that bears his name.
Mencius emphasized the significance of the common citizens in the state. While Confucianism generally regards rulers highly, he argued that it is acceptable for the subjects to overthrow or even kill a ruler who ignores the people's needs and rules harshly. This is because a ruler who does not rule justly is no longer a true ruler.
Human nature has an innate tendency towards goodness, but moral rightness cannot be instructed down to the last detail. This is why merely external controls always fail in improving society. True improvement results from educational cultivation in favorable environments. Likewise, bad environments tend to corrupt the human will.
According to Mencius, education must awaken the innate abilities of the human mind. He denounced memorization and advocated active interrogation of the text, saying, "One who believes all of a book would be better off without books." One should check for internal consistency by comparing sections and debate the probability of factual accounts by comparing them with experience.
Mencius served as counselor to princes in the state of Qi and later visited other states to advice on government. After about 15 years he appears to have concluded that while treated with respect, he was offering advice that was ignored. Many of the kings and princes at that time were interested in pleasure and conquest rather than theories of good government. Mencius therefore retired from active life and turned to philosophy and the compilation of the substantial book that bears his name.
Mencius emphasized the significance of the common citizens in the state. While Confucianism generally regards rulers highly, he argued that it is acceptable for the subjects to overthrow or even kill a ruler who ignores the people's needs and rules harshly. This is because a ruler who does not rule justly is no longer a true ruler.
Human nature has an innate tendency towards goodness, but moral rightness cannot be instructed down to the last detail. This is why merely external controls always fail in improving society. True improvement results from educational cultivation in favorable environments. Likewise, bad environments tend to corrupt the human will.
According to Mencius, education must awaken the innate abilities of the human mind. He denounced memorization and advocated active interrogation of the text, saying, "One who believes all of a book would be better off without books." One should check for internal consistency by comparing sections and debate the probability of factual accounts by comparing them with experience.
sábado, 5 de febrero de 2011
兵家; School of Military & 縱橫家/纵横家 School of Diplomacy
The Warring States Period saw the introduction of many innovations to the art of warfare in China, such as the use of iron and of cavalry. Near the beginning of the Warring States Period we see a shift from chariots to massed infantry, possibly associated with the invention of the crossbow. This had two major effects. First it led the dukes to weaken their chariot-riding nobility so they could get direct access to the peasantry who could be drafted as infantry. This change was associated with the shift from aristocratic to bureaucratic government. Second, it led to a massive increase in the scale of warfare. The bloodshed and misery of the Warring States Period goes a long way in explaining China's traditional preference for a united monarchy.
The Warring States was a great period for military strategy. The military strategist Sun Tzu is said to have written The Art of War, which is recognized today as the most influential and oldest known military strategy guide. Along with this were other military writings that make up the Seven Military Classics of ancient China: Jiang Ziya's Six Secret Teachings, Sima Rangju's The Methods of the Sima, Sun Bin's Art of War, Wu Qi, Wei Liaozi, Three strategies of Huang Shigong, and Questions and Replies between Tang Taizong and Li Weigong (the last being made approximately 800 years after this era ended).
孙子兵法 – Art of War by Sun zi
知彼知己，百戰不殆；不知彼而知己，一勝一負；不知彼，不知己，每戰必殆
If you know your enemies and know yourself, you will not be imperiled in a hundred battles; if you do not know your enemies but do know yourself, you will win one and lose one; if you do not know your enemies nor yourself, you will be imperiled in every single battle.
“兵者，诡道也。 All warfare is based on deception”.
Indeed, Deception is that Art.
Along with the Strategic school we can mention the School of Diplomacy, as one of main Chinese School of Thought. This school focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle, so it stressed political and diplomatic tactics, and debate and lobbying skill. Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians The few principal written records of the School of Diplomacy that exist today are the thirteenth chapter of the 'Book of Gui' or 'Gui Gu-zi', the thirty-third chapter of 'Annals of the Warring States Period' (not about the School of Diplomacy’s followers but primarily the words and actions of its advisors as well as actual combat case studies), the thirty-first chapter of 'Su Zi' and the tenth chapter of 'Zhang Zi'. The seventh chapter of the 'Benjing Yifu' appendix to the 'Gui Gu-zi' describes the mental and moral cultivation methods used by the School of Diplomacy; the 'Benjing' covers the ideas behind the basic guiding principles whilst the 'Yinfu' consists of very mysterious concealed writings. The reader can comprehend these but is unable to discover their essential meaning. The 'Gui Gu-zi' is a book of theory that is complete in every detail and very subtly written, making its ideas hard to express. More importantly the work requires study and use in order to understand the nuances of its meaning. The 'Annals of the Warring States Period' is a well-written rhetorical compendium the words and actions of the strategists of the School of Diplomacy who were all resourceful, intelligent, aware of the actual situation and gifted in the use of language.
The Warring States was a great period for military strategy. The military strategist Sun Tzu is said to have written The Art of War, which is recognized today as the most influential and oldest known military strategy guide. Along with this were other military writings that make up the Seven Military Classics of ancient China: Jiang Ziya's Six Secret Teachings, Sima Rangju's The Methods of the Sima, Sun Bin's Art of War, Wu Qi, Wei Liaozi, Three strategies of Huang Shigong, and Questions and Replies between Tang Taizong and Li Weigong (the last being made approximately 800 years after this era ended).
孙子兵法 – Art of War by Sun zi
知彼知己，百戰不殆；不知彼而知己，一勝一負；不知彼，不知己，每戰必殆
If you know your enemies and know yourself, you will not be imperiled in a hundred battles; if you do not know your enemies but do know yourself, you will win one and lose one; if you do not know your enemies nor yourself, you will be imperiled in every single battle.
“兵者，诡道也。 All warfare is based on deception”.
Indeed, Deception is that Art.
Along with the Strategic school we can mention the School of Diplomacy, as one of main Chinese School of Thought. This school focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle, so it stressed political and diplomatic tactics, and debate and lobbying skill. Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians The few principal written records of the School of Diplomacy that exist today are the thirteenth chapter of the 'Book of Gui' or 'Gui Gu-zi', the thirty-third chapter of 'Annals of the Warring States Period' (not about the School of Diplomacy’s followers but primarily the words and actions of its advisors as well as actual combat case studies), the thirty-first chapter of 'Su Zi' and the tenth chapter of 'Zhang Zi'. The seventh chapter of the 'Benjing Yifu' appendix to the 'Gui Gu-zi' describes the mental and moral cultivation methods used by the School of Diplomacy; the 'Benjing' covers the ideas behind the basic guiding principles whilst the 'Yinfu' consists of very mysterious concealed writings. The reader can comprehend these but is unable to discover their essential meaning. The 'Gui Gu-zi' is a book of theory that is complete in every detail and very subtly written, making its ideas hard to express. More importantly the work requires study and use in order to understand the nuances of its meaning. The 'Annals of the Warring States Period' is a well-written rhetorical compendium the words and actions of the strategists of the School of Diplomacy who were all resourceful, intelligent, aware of the actual situation and gifted in the use of language.
Suscribirse a:
Entradas (Atom)