墨家- Mohism

The key to appreciating Mozi's perspective on life was the constantly escalating wars of expansion among the many states of ancient China: aggressive rulers often attacked neighboring states with no discernible regard for the welfare of the inhabitants. Mozi, outraged at such injustices, labored to persuade people to look upon others' interests as being equally important as one's own.

Mo (470 BC – ca. 391 BC) organized his followers into a communal society that was as much an army as a religious order. One of its purposes was actually to provide military aid to states that were under attack

Most Mozi commentators agree upon that the work that goes by his name is noteworthy for its attempts to persuade through arguments; something which can be related to his doctrine is called utilitarianism.

Main topics
1. On the Standards

“The artisans make square objects according to the square, circular objects according to the compasses; they draw straight lines with the carpenter's line and find the perpendicular by a pendulum. All artisans, whether skilled or unskilled, employ these five standards. Only the skilled workers are accurate. Though the unskilled laborers have not attained accuracy, yet they do better by following these standards than otherwise. Thus all artisans follow the standards in their work.”
What then should be taken as the standard in government? Nothing better than following Heaven. Heaven is all-inclusive and impartial in its activities, abundant and unceasing in its blessings, and lasting and untiring in its guidance. And, so, when the sage-kings had accepted Heaven as their standard, they measured every action and enterprise by Heaven. What Heaven desired they would carry out, what Heaven abominated they refrained from. Now, what is it that Heaven desires, and what that it abominates? Certainly Heaven desires to have men benefit and love one another and abominates to have them hate and harm one another. How do we know that Heaven desires to have men love and benefit one another and abominates to have them hate and harm one another? Because it loves and benefits men universally. How do we know that it loves and benefits men universally? Because it claims all and accepts offerings from all.

(法儀 - On the necessity of standards – All English translation: W. P. Mei)

“To obey the will of Heaven is to be universal and to oppose the will of Heaven is to be partial (in love). According to the doctrine of universality righteousness is the standard; in the doctrine of partiality force is the basis of government”.

“Everything is prepared for the good of man”.

(天志 - Will of Heaven)

“Zhi Tu Yu and Xian Zi Shuo asked Mozi: "What is the greatest righteousness in conduct?" Mozi said: It is like the building of a wall. Let those who can lay the bricks lay the bricks, let those who can fill in the mortar fill in the mortar, and let those who can carry up the material carry up the material. Then the wall can be completed. To do righteousness is just like this. Let those who can argue argue, let those who can expound the doctrines expound the doctrines, and let those who can administer, administer. Then righteousness is achieved.”

“Wu Mazi said to Mozi: "Though you love universally the world cannot be said to be benefited; though I do not love (universally) the world cannot be said to be injured. Since neither of us has accomplished anything, what makes you then praise yourself and blame me? Mozi answered: Suppose a conflagration is on. One person is fetching water to extinguish it, and another is holding some fuel to reinforce it. Neither of them has yet accomplished anything, but which one do you value? Wu Mazi answered that he approved of the intention of the person who fetches water and disapproved of the intention of the person who holds fuel. Mozi said: (In the same manner) do I approve of my intention and disapprove of yours”

“Wu Mazi said to Mozi: "For all the righteousness that you do, men do not help you and ghosts do not bless you. Yet you keep on doing it. You must be demented." Mozi said: Suppose you have here two employees. One of them works when he sees you but will not work when he does not see you. The other one works whether he sees you or not. Which of the two would you value? Wu Mazi said that he would value him that worked whether he saw him or not. Mozi then said: Then you are valuing him who is demented”

(耕柱 - Geng Zhu)

2. 尚賢 - Exaltation of the Virtuous

“And, the ancient sage-kings in exalting the virtuous and employing the capable in government were following the ways of Heaven”

(Exaltation of the Virtuous)

3. 尚同 - Identification with the Superior

4. 兼相愛(交相利)- Universal Love (and mutual aid)

"Whoever criticizes others must have something to replace them. Criticism without suggestion is like trying to stop flood with flood and put out fire with fire. It will surely be without worth. Mozi said: Partiality is to be replaced by universality"

"When we try to develop and procure benefits for the world with universal love as our standard, then attentive ears and keen eyes will respond in service to one another, then limbs will be strengthened to work for one another, and those who know the Tao will untiringly instruct others."

(兼愛 - Universal Love)

5. 非攻 - Condemnation of Offensive War

“The murder of one person is called unrighteous and incurs one death penalty; the murder of a hundred persons will be a hundred times as unrighteous and there should be a hundred death penalties, but when it comes to the great unrighteousness of attacking states, the gentlemen of the world do not know that they should condemn it. On the contrary, they applaud it, calling it righteous. Hence we know the gentlemen of the world are confused about the difference between righteousness and unrighteousness.”

(非攻 - Condemnation of Offensive War)

“Mozi said: The blind say that which is bright is white, that which is dark is black. Even the keen-sighted cannot alter this. But if we should mix up the black and white objects and let the blind select them they could not do it. Hence the reason that I say the blind do not know white from black does not lie in the matter of definition but in the process of selection. Now, the way the gentlemen of the world define magnanimity even Yu and Tang cannot alter. But when we mix up magnanimous conduct with unmagnanimous conduct and let the gentlemen of the world choose them they do not know which is which. So, the reason that I say the gentlemen of the world do not know magnanimity does not lie in the matter of definition either; it also lies in the process of selection”

(Esteem for Righteousness)

6. 節用 - Economy of Expenditures

Mohism evolved at about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism and was one of the four main philosophic schools during the Spring and Autumn Period (from 770 BCE to 480 BCE) and the Warring States Period (from 479 BCE to 221 BCE). During that time, Mohism (墨 Mo) was seen as a major rival to Confucianism (儒 Ru). The Qin dynasty, which united China in 221 BCE, adopted Legalism as the official government philosophy and suppressed all other philosophic schools. The Han dynasty that followed adopted Confucianism as the official state philosophy, as did most other successive dynasties, and Mohism all but disappeared as a separate school of thought. Mohist books were later merged into Taoist canon.

Laozi 老子

According to Chinese tradition, Laozi lived in the 6th century BC. Laozi is known as the author of the TaoDejing - the Tao´s Virtue book- and traditionally considered the founder of Taoism.

Tao(Dao) 道
Tao literally means "path" or "way" and can figuratively mean "essential nature", "destiny", "principle", or "true path". The philosophical and religious "Tao" is infinite, without limitation. One view states that the paradoxical opening is intended to prepare the reader for teachings about the unteachable Tao. Tao is believed to be indistinct and without form. Hence, it cannot be named or categorized.

Taoist commentators have deeply considered the Taodejing opening lines:
道可道，非常道。 (Tao (way or path) can be said, not usual way)
"The Way that can be described is not the true Way."
名可名，非常名。 (names can be named, not usual names)
"The Name that can be named is not the constant Name."

The Daodejing describes the Dao (or Tao) as the mystical source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. According to the Daodejing, humans have no special place within the Dao, being just one of its many manifestations. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Dao. The Daodejing intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Dao. Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point.

De (德)
Tao is also associated with the complex concept of De "power; virtue; integrity", that is, the active expression of Tao. De is the active living, or cultivation, of that "way".

Other important concepts in Taoism are:

Wu wei (无为)
Wu wei is a central concept in Taoism. The literal meaning of wu wei is "without action". It is often expressed by the paradox wei wu wei, meaning "action without action" or "effortless doing". The practice and efficacy of wu wei are fundamental in Taoist thought, most prominently emphasized in philosophical Taoism. The goal of wu wei is alignment with Tao, revealing the soft and invisible power within all things. It is believed by Taoists that masters of wu wei can observe and follow this invisible potential, the innate in-action of the Way.

In ancient Taoist texts, wu wei is associated with water through its yielding nature. Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world, they disrupt that harmony. Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural universe.

The concept of wu wei is very complex and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment."

It is a concept used to explain harmony with the Dao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. Laozi used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action.

Pu (朴)
Pu (朴) means "uncut wood" also translated as "simplicity". It is a metaphor for the state of wu wei. It represents a passive state of receptiveness. Pu is a symbol for a state of pure potential and perception without prejudice. In this state, Taoists believe everything is seen as it is, without preconceptions or illusion.

Pu is usually seen as keeping oneself in the primordial state of tao. It is believed to be the true nature of the mind, unburdened by knowledge or experiences. In the state of pu, there is no right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. There is only pure experience, or awareness, free from learned labels and definitions. It is this state of being that is the goal of following wu wei.



According to esoteric adherents, the Daodejing contains specific instructions for Daoist adepts relating to qigong meditations, and in veiled preachings the way to revert to the primordial state. This interpretation supports the view that Taoism is a religion addressing the quest of immortality.

Reverence for ancestor spirits and immortals is also common in popular Taoism. Organized Taoism distinguishes its ritual activity from that of the folk religion, which some professional Taoists (Daoshi) view as debased. Chinese alchemy, astrology, cuisine, Zen Buddhism several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, feng shui, immortality, and many styles of qigong breath training disciplines have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history.

孔子-Confucius

Confucius ( 孔子), literally "Master Kong” (551–479 BC), was born in the Lu state (South of modern-day Shandong Province) in the later days of the Spring and Autumn Period. Confucius sought to revive the perfect virtue of Huaxia (Chinese civilization) and the classical properties of the Western Zhou Dynasty to build a great, harmonious and humanistic society.

In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven (天命) that could unify the "world" (天下, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage; these would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and social perfection.

He was one of the earliest thinkers of the Hundred School of Thoughts, however, the vast empire of the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) 600 years later made it necessary to rely on a well organized scholarship elite that also was able to supply administrative officials. Only the well-read Confucian scholars (rujia 儒家 -School of literati) were able to fulfill such an immense task. Their deep knowledge of the old writings provided the emperors with the needed Heaven approved authority to lead the government of the empire. The dynastic calendar and yearly ritual offerings to Heaven and Earth all based upon the old Confucian classical writings. Confucius' thoughts developed into a system of philosophy known as Confucianism (儒家).

Confucius teachings

His teachings may be found in the Analect of Confucius (论语), a collection of "brief aphoristic fragments", which was compiled many years after his death. For nearly 2,000 years he was thought to be the editor or author of all the Five Classics (五经) such as the Classic of Rites (礼记), and the Spring and Autumn Annals (春秋)

In the Analects, Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing" He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study.

Confucius' principles gained wide acceptance primarily because of their basis in common Chinese tradition and belief. He championed strong familial loyalty, ancestor worship, respect of elders by their children (and, according to later interpreters, of husbands by their wives), and the family as a basis for an ideal government.

The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in Lǐ - Rituals (礼)is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, social and political institutions, and the etiquette of daily behavior.

In early Confucianism, yì (义)and lǐ are closely linked terms. Yì can be translated as righteousness, though it may simply mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest. While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one based one's life upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good, an outcome of yì. This is doing the right thing for the right reason. Yì is based upon reciprocity.

Just as action according to Lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to the core value of rén (仁). Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence" or "humaneness". Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì. To cultivate one's attentiveness to rén one used another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: “one must always treat others just as one would want others to treat oneself”. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other.

Confucius' political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argues that the best government is one that rules through "rites" (lǐ) and people's natural morality, this is an internalization of duty, which is showed as a “sense of shame”.

The Hundred Schools of Thought 诸子百家

The Hundred Schools of Thought 诸子百家; literally "all philosophers hundred schools", were philosophers and schools that flourished from 770 to 221 BC, an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China.

Even though this period - known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period - in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely.

This phenomenon has been called the Contention of a Hundred Schools of Though. The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in East Asian countries.

The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the Qin dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent.

If the Qin purged dissent, they only admitted the Legalist School, the Han, the dynasty which followed Qin, implemented Confucianism as official doctrine of the Empire and so it stayed for 2000 years until the last Chinese dynasty in the XX century.

The existence of a number of contending states give way to free speech if allowed by a common language; the most active philosophical epochs in Europe was Greeks time, where many city-states coexisted, and even free thinking and speech was supported and promoted in Athens, and this was the case in protestant Germany, where free interpretation and discussion of the Bible was allowed by Protestantism. Strong states, however, have forged unity many times by expelling or purging people of other believes as Moors or Jews in imperial Spain, etc. etc.

Early years

As it has been said in a previous post, the first Chinese dynasty is supposed to be the Xia Dynasty (夏朝; ca. 2070 BC–ca. 1600 BC) but we do not have clear records of its existence.

Chinese history actually began with the Shang Dynasty (商朝 c. 1700 – c. 1046 BC). (It is also called by other name Yin, after the last capital near modern Anyang 安阳/Henan). Oracle bones with ancient Chinese writing from the Shang Dynasty have been radiocarbondated to as early as 1500 BC. Oracle bones and hundreds of ritual vessels findings have proved that at least the last part of the Shang was indeed a historical period.

The origins of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy developed during the Zhou Dynasty (周朝; 1045-256 BC). The Zhou Dynasty held real power until 770 BC. This period is referred as Eastern Zhou 東周 and it is considered 'feudal' due its similarity with medieval Europe. Zhou Dynasty just ruled from walled cities rather than castles. The Chinese term for the Zhou system is Fēngjiàn (封建) -when the dynasty was established the conquered land was divided into hereditary fiefs, the pyramidal system had its top in the Emperor or Son of Heaven.

The date of 770 BC as the beginning of the Western Zhou Dynasty and their losing of real power is due to the savage attack by the western "barbarian" tribes of Quanrong 犬戎 who sacked the eastern capital of Zongzhou and forced the Zhou to flee to their eastern capital of Chengzhou 成周 or Luoyang. The emperor conserved his title but was relegated to the capital limits and his activities were reduced to performing ceremonials. The fiefs become the fact independent and later on the fiefdoms declared themselves as kingdoms.

The period going from 770 BC until 475 BC is called Spring and Autumn Period (春秋時代) according with the title given by Confucius to his chronicles on that time, a big number of states coexisted then. From 475 BC onwards it is followed by the Warring States Period 战国時代 which lasted until 221 BC. This epoch is dominated by the fight between 7 or 8 powerful states which had been able to absorb all others.

The Zhou culture is apparently a mixture of different cultures of peoples that lived in the Wei River 渭水 valley. After leaving the Wei River plain to expand their realm, the Zhou people adopted keenly the culture of the subdued Shang people. Oracle bone divination, bronze casting for sacrificial purposes and burying rites were almost the same as the Shang rulers used to impose. Writing was first used to comment divination results on bones and to write down enfeoffments and events of great importance upon bronze vessels that were buried together with deceased nobles. But the Western Zhou also developed their own style in decorating vessels. In the first few centuries of the 1st millenium BC ornaments and vessel types became quite different from the Shang motifs earlier.

Historical events during the Western Zhou period were also written down upon bamboo strips that did not survive, but whose texts were transmitted through the centuries. The most important texts to the Zhou tradition became also the core texts of the later Confucian classics: The "Book of Documents" is a collection of speeches and discussions from the mythical Xia and Shang Dynasties to the end of Western Zhou period. The "Book of Songs" is a collection of hymns, critics and popular songs from the Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods. The third great text is the "Book of Changes" (Yijing 易经), a manual for milfoil divination said to have been compiled by King Wen or the Duke of Zhou before Confucius.

In the Western Zhou period, a time of permanent warfare and state reforms, practical advisors were the most wanted teachers and the period was called The Hundred Schools of Thought (baijia 百家), no just the Golden Age of Chinese Thought, but arguably the only one in its history, when China experienced a great intellectual activity as thinkers and their schools disputed against each other. Free expression could not be suppressed by a single state official doctrine as usual in China.